"Synthesis of Pthalamide from pthalic anhydride"

 

Experiment No. 1

Synthesis of orthochlorobenzoic acid from pthalic anhydride:

Organic Synthesis: 

It is a Special branch of synthesis and Concerned with the international-construction of organic compounds. It Can ocurr in many Steps. Above synthesis of o-Chloro benzoic acid occur in following Steps:

Step I:

Synthesis of Pthalamide from phalic anhydride

Step II:

Anthanilic acid from Pthalamide

Step III:

Ortho chlorobenzoic acid from anthranilic acid

 

Step I

Synthesis of Pthalamide from pthalic anhydride

Chemicals required:

1. phthalic anhydride 10 gm
2. Ammonium Carhonate 10 equivalent quantity

Theory: 

The most important Synthesis of Pthalamide is dehydrative Condensation of Phthalic anhydride at high temperature with primary amines ((NH₄)₂CO₃), when amine is not readily availible, the direct of N-alkylation of Pthalimides with the alcohols and of Potasium Pthalamide with alkyl halide are Popular to protect Phthalamines. This synthesis occurs in the absence of solvent. The two moles of CO₂ gas and water molecules evolved in this process.

Chemical Equation:

Mechanism:

 

Procedure:

I mixed thoroughly Phthalic anhydride and 10g ammonium Carbonate in morter and Pistle. Then I placed the mixture in 200ml round bottom flask. Then, I fixed this flask in sand bath and I heated with frequently shaking for 1-2 hours until the reaction mixture got fused. I stopped heating when I observed shiny crystals. The hot reaction was poured into porcelain and allowed to Cool and finally broken into pieces and powdered.

Observations:

Melting Point:

Melting point of Substance is the temperature at which it Changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. The melting point of Pthalamide is 234^oC

 

Calculations:

Mass of pthalic anhydride = 10g

Molecular mass of pthalic anhydride = 148 g/mol

Moles of pthalic anhydride = x m/M

                    10g÷148g/mol = 0.06756 moles

Moles of pthalic anhydride = 0.06756 moles

Mass of ammonium carbonates = 10g

Molecular mass of ammonium carbonates = 96g/mol

Moles of ammonium carbonates = x m/M

                       10g÷96g/mol = 0.1042 moles

Moles of ammonium carbonates = 0.1042 moles

From chemical equation;

1eq of pthalic anhydride = 1eq of ammonium carbonates = 1eq of pthalimide

So,

0.6756 moles of pthalic anhydride=0.06756 moles of ammonium carbonates=0.06756

moles of pthalimide

Molecular mass of pthalimide = 147 g/moles

Moles of pthalimide = 0.6756 moles

Mass of pthalimide = n×M

                                (0.6756mol)(147 g/mol) = 9.92g

Theoretical yield = 9.92g

Actual yield = 7g

%age yield   =     Actual yield ÷ Theoretical yield ×100

                                                      7/9.92×100 = 70.56%

%age yield of pthalimide = 70.56%

Yield:

The Calculated amount of product is theoretical yield. The amount of product actually obtained is actual yield and when actual yield is divided by theoretical give obtained yield.

It would give expected product yield.

"Unlocking Molecular Insights: Predicting Spectroscopic Properties through DFT Calculations"

"Unlocking Molecular Insights: Predicting Spectroscopic Properties through DFT Calculations"

Introduction:

Molecular spectroscopy plays a vital role in understanding the properties and behavior of chemical compounds. The advent of Density Functional Theory (DFT) has revolutionized the prediction and interpretation of various spectroscopic properties. In this article, we will delve into the application of DFT in predicting molecular spectroscopic properties such as UV-Vis absorption spectra, vibrational frequencies, and NMR chemical shifts. Additionally, we will discuss the challenges and limitations associated with DFT calculations for spectroscopic properties, and provide real-world examples demonstrating the utility of DFT in interpreting experimental spectra and uncovering molecular structure and dynamics.

DFT and Molecular Spectroscopy:

Density Functional Theory (DFT) is a computational method that allows us to predict and analyze the electronic structure and properties of molecules. By solving the Schrödinger equation using density functional approximations, DFT provides insights into various spectroscopic properties. One such property is the UV-Vis absorption spectra, which helps us understand a molecule's absorption of light at different wavelengths and its electronic transitions.

Vibrational Frequencies and Infrared Spectroscopy:

DFT calculations enable the prediction of vibrational frequencies, which are crucial in interpreting infrared (IR) spectra. Vibrational frequencies provide information about molecular vibrations and can be used to identify functional groups and confirm molecular structures. By comparing calculated vibrational frequencies with experimental data, DFT aids in the accurate assignment of peaks in IR spectra.

NMR Chemical Shifts and Structural Elucidation:

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful technique for determining molecular structures and analyzing chemical environments. DFT calculations can predict NMR chemical shifts, which are influenced by the electronic and steric effects within a molecule. The comparison between calculated and experimental chemical shifts aids in the identification of functional groups, stereochemistry, and conformational analysis.

Challenges and Limitations:

While DFT is a versatile tool for predicting spectroscopic properties, certain challenges and limitations should be considered. The choice of the exchange-correlation functional and basis set affects the accuracy and reliability of DFT calculations. Additionally, solvent effects, temperature, and dynamic processes can pose challenges in accurately predicting spectroscopic properties using DFT.

Examples of DFT in Spectroscopic Analysis:

Real-world examples demonstrate the power of DFT in analyzing experimental spectra and elucidating molecular structure and dynamics. Case studies involving UV-Vis absorption spectra, vibrational frequencies, and NMR chemical shifts showcase the successful application of DFT calculations in various fields, including organic chemistry, materials science, and biochemistry.

Conclusion:

Density Functional Theory (DFT) has emerged as a valuable tool for predicting and interpreting molecular spectroscopic properties. By employing DFT calculations, researchers can obtain insights into UV-Vis absorption spectra, vibrational frequencies, and NMR chemical shifts, enabling a deeper understanding of molecular structure and dynamics. While challenges and limitations exist, the continued advancement of DFT methodologies and techniques holds promise for further enhancing the accuracy and applicability of spectroscopic predictions. Harnessing the power of DFT opens up new possibilities for unraveling the mysteries hidden within molecular spectra and advancing scientific knowledge.

"Delving into the World of Molecular Conformational Analysis with DFT: Unveiling Structure, Energy Landscapes, and Reactivity"

 

"Delving into the World of Molecular Conformational Analysis with DFT: Unveiling Structure, Energy Landscapes, and Reactivity"

Introduction:

Understanding the molecular structure and conformational properties of chemical compounds is essential for unraveling their properties and behavior. Molecular structure, including bond lengths, angles, and dihedral angles, plays a crucial role in determining the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of molecules. In this article, we will delve into the significance of molecular structure and conformational analysis and explore how Density Functional Theory (DFT) can be employed as a powerful computational tool to investigate these aspects. We will also discuss the application of DFT in understanding molecular conformations and their influence on reactivity through case studies.

Determining Molecular Structure with DFT:

Density Functional Theory (DFT) is a computational method widely used to determine the molecular structure of chemical compounds. It provides a theoretical framework for predicting various structural parameters, such as bond lengths, angles, and dihedral angles. DFT employs quantum mechanical principles to calculate the electronic structure and energy of molecules, enabling researchers to understand the arrangement of atoms in space.

By solving the Schrödinger equation for the electronic wave function, DFT allows for accurate predictions of bond lengths, which are the distances between atoms connected by a chemical bond. Bond angles, the angles formed between two adjacent bonds, and dihedral angles, which describe the rotation between different molecular fragments, can also be determined using DFT calculations. These structural parameters are essential for understanding molecular geometry and its impact on chemical behavior.

Conformational Analysis and Energy Landscapes:

Conformational analysis involves studying the different spatial arrangements of a molecule by exploring its potential energy surface. A molecule can adopt various conformations due to rotations around single bonds, resulting in different energy states and geometric orientations. DFT can aid in the exploration of energy landscapes by predicting the relative energies of different conformations.

Through DFT calculations, researchers can determine the most stable conformer of a molecule by evaluating the energy differences between different conformations. This analysis provides insights into the preferred molecular shape and the factors influencing conformational stability. By mapping the energy landscape, scientists can understand the relationship between molecular structure, conformational preferences, and energy barriers.

Certainly! Conformational analysis and energy landscapes can be studied using DFT calculations in in Gaussian and GaussView, a popular computational chemistry softwares. Let's explore the process;

Molecular Structure and Initial Conformation:

We begin by defining the molecular structure of interest, which consists of a set of atoms connected by chemical bonds. For example, let's consider a simple molecule such as ethane (C₂H₆). The initial conformation refers to the arrangement of atoms and bond rotations before any calculations are performed.

3D structure of Ethane

Generating Conformers:

To explore different conformations, we introduce rotations around single bonds in the molecule. In the case of ethane, we can rotate the central carbon-carbon (C-C) bond. By systematically varying the dihedral angle (τ) between the two methyl groups (CH₃), we generate a series of conformers.

Optimizing Conformations using DFT:

Each conformer is subjected to geometry optimization using DFT calculations in Gaussian. The optimization involves finding the most energetically favorable arrangement of atoms by minimizing the total energy of the system. This process takes into account the positions of all atoms and their electronic interactions.

Energy Calculation and Landscape Exploration:

After the geometry optimization, the energy of each conformer is calculated using DFT. The energy landscape is constructed by plotting the calculated energy as a function of the dihedral angle (τ). This landscape provides insights into the relative stabilities of different conformations.

 

Role of DFT in Understanding Molecular Conformations and Reactivity:

DFT plays a vital role in elucidating the impact of molecular conformations on reactivity. By predicting energy barriers associated with molecular transformations, DFT can reveal the influence of conformational changes on reaction rates and pathways. Understanding these effects is crucial in fields such as drug design, catalysis, and materials science.

Case studies utilizing DFT have demonstrated its effectiveness in understanding the relationship between molecular conformation and reactivity. For example, in drug design, DFT calculations can shed light on the preferred conformations of drug molecules, helping optimize their activity and selectivity. In catalysis, DFT can provide insights into the effect of ligand conformation on reaction mechanisms and selectivity. By simulating molecular conformations and reaction pathways, DFT allows researchers to make informed decisions about experimental design and optimization.

Conclusion:

Molecular structure and conformational analysis are fundamental aspects of understanding chemical compounds and their behavior. DFT serves as a powerful computational tool for investigating molecular structure, energy landscapes, and the impact of conformational changes on reactivity. By leveraging DFT, researchers can gain valuable insights into the structural properties of molecules, optimize their properties, and make informed decisions in various fields of research. The continued advancement of DFT techniques promises to drive further breakthroughs in molecular sciences and related disciplines.

 

“Unveiling the Fundamentals of Density Functional Theory (DFT): Exploring Principles, Equations, and Functionals Like B3LYP, CAM-B3LYP”

 

“Unveiling the Fundamentals of Density Functional Theory (DFT): Exploring Principles, Equations, and Functionals Like B3LYP, CAM-B3LYP”

 

Introduction:

Density Functional Theory (DFT) is a powerful computational method used in materials science, chemistry, and physics to understand and predict the electronic structure of atoms, molecules, and solids. By investigating the fundamental principles, mathematical foundations, Kohn-Sham equations, and exchange-correlation functionals, we can gain insight into the inner workings of DFT. Furthermore, we will explore different types of functionals and their impact on accuracy and computational cost, highlighting the significance of choosing the appropriate functional for a given system.

Understanding the Basic Principles of DFT:

Density Functional Theory is based on the Hohenberg-Kohn theorems, which state that the electronic density uniquely determines the external potential and, therefore, the total energy of a system. The central idea behind DFT is to replace the many-particle wavefunction with the electron density, making calculations computationally feasible for complex systems.

Mathematical Foundations of DFT:

DFT employs the Kohn-Sham approach, which introduces a set of fictitious non-interacting electrons moving in an effective potential. The Kohn-Sham equations solve for the wavefunctions and energies of these fictitious electrons, while the electron density is obtained by filling the orbitals according to the Fermi-Dirac distribution.

The Role of Exchange-Correlation Functionals:

The exchange-correlation functional accounts for the missing electron-electron interactions in the Kohn-Sham equations. It combines the exchange energy, which arises from the antisymmetry of the electronic wavefunction, and the correlation energy, which accounts for the electron-electron interactions beyond mean-field approximation. Different types of functionals exist, such as local density approximation (LDA), generalized gradient approximation (GGA), and hybrid functionals, each with varying accuracy and computational cost.

Local Density Approximation (LDA):

LDA is the simplest form of the exchange-correlation functional, assuming that the exchange-correlation energy per electron is uniform throughout the system. While LDA provides reasonable results for many systems, it may fail in situations where spatial variations in the density are significant.

Generalized Gradient Approximation (GGA):

GGA improves upon LDA by considering not only the electron density but also its gradient. This accounts for the inhomogeneity of the electron density, making GGA functionals more accurate for a broader range of systems. GGA functionals have gained significant popularity due to their favorable balance between accuracy and computational cost.

Hybrid Functionals:

Hybrid functionals combine the simplicity of LDA or GGA with a fraction of exact exchange energy from Hartree-Fock theory.

This inclusion of exact exchange improves accuracy for systems involving strongly correlated electrons, such as transition metal complexes and catalytic reactions. However, the computational cost of hybrid functionals is higher compared to LDA and GGA.

B3LYP and CAM-B3LYP are examples of hybrid functionals within Density Functional Theory (DFT).

B3LYP (Becke, three-parameter, Lee-Yang-Parr) is one of the most widely used hybrid functionals. It combines the local density approximation (LDA) with the gradient-corrected exchange-correlation functionals of the generalized gradient approximation (GGA). Additionally, B3LYP incorporates a fraction of exact Hartree-Fock exchange.

CAM-B3LYP (Corrected Application of B3LYP) is a modified version of B3LYP that includes a long-range correction term to improve its performance for systems with significant dispersion interactions. This correction accounts for long-range electron correlation effects that are not well captured by standard functionals.

Hybrid functionals like B3LYP and CAM-B3LYP offer improved accuracy compared to pure LDA or GGA functionals, particularly for systems with strong electron correlation or dispersion interactions. They are commonly employed in computational chemistry for studying reaction mechanisms, molecular properties, and spectroscopic properties of molecules.

Conclusion:

Density Functional Theory (DFT) provides a powerful framework for studying the electronic structure of atoms, molecules, and solids. By understanding the basic principles, mathematical foundations, and the role of exchange-correlation functionals, researchers can make informed choices regarding the accuracy and computational cost of their DFT calculations. Whether utilizing LDA, GGA, or hybrid functionals, selecting the appropriate functional is crucial for obtaining reliable results in various scientific applications. Continued advancements in DFT methodologies contribute to our understanding of complex materials and facilitate the development of innovative technologies in fields ranging from materials science to drug discovery.

"Decoding Molecular Systems: Exploring Density Functional Theory (DFT) as a Powerful Computational Method"

 

"Decoding Molecular Systems: Exploring Density Functional Theory (DFT) as a Powerful Computational Method"

 

Introduction:

Density Functional Theory (DFT) has emerged as a powerful computational method for investigating molecular systems in various scientific disciplines. This article aims to provide a comprehensive introduction to DFT, explaining its principles, applications, and advantages. We will explore the fundamental concepts of DFT and delve into how it is used to analyze molecular structures, predict properties, and simulate chemical reactions. By the end of this article, you will have a solid understanding of DFT and its significance in modern scientific research.

What is Density Functional Theory?

Density Functional Theory (DFT) is a computational approach used to study the electronic structure and properties of molecules and materials. It offers a theoretical framework that allows researchers to understand and predict the behavior of complex molecular systems. Unlike traditional methods, DFT calculates the electron density rather than the wave functions of all electrons in a system. This simplifies the calculations and makes it computationally efficient for studying large molecular systems.

Principles and Functionals in DFT:

At the heart of DFT lie the principles and functionals that govern its calculations. The Hohenberg-Kohn theorem and the Kohn-Sham equations form the foundation of DFT. The former states that the electron density determines the ground-state properties, while the latter expresses the electronic structure as a set of non-interacting electrons in an effective potential. Various exchange-correlation functionals, such as the local density approximation (LDA) and the generalized gradient approximation (GGA), are employed to approximate the exchange and correlation energies in DFT calculations.

Applications of DFT:

DFT finds applications in a wide range of scientific fields. In chemistry, it is used to study molecular properties, including molecular geometry, bond energies, and reaction mechanisms. Materials scientists employ DFT to investigate the electronic properties of solids, surfaces, and nanoparticles. Additionally, DFT plays a vital role in biochemistry, enabling the exploration of protein structures, drug interactions, and enzymatic reactions. Moreover, DFT is utilized in physics to analyze the behavior of electrons in semiconductors and superconductors.

Advantages of DFT:

DFT offers several advantages over other computational methods. It provides accurate predictions of molecular properties with reasonable computational cost, making it an efficient tool for large-scale simulations. DFT can handle systems with thousands of atoms, allowing researchers to study complex molecular structures. Furthermore, it enables the exploration of dynamic processes, such as molecular vibrations and excited states. Additionally, DFT provides insights into electronic properties, aiding in the design of new materials with desired characteristics. Its ability to predict spectroscopic properties also facilitates the interpretation of experimental data.

Conclusion:

Density Functional Theory (DFT) has revolutionized the field of computational chemistry and materials science. Its ability to accurately describe molecular systems and predict their properties has made it a widely used method in scientific research. By employing various functionals, DFT allows researchers to study a vast range of molecular structures and phenomena. As computational power continues to advance, DFT is expected to play an even more significant role in understanding complex molecular systems. Whether in drug discovery, material design, or fundamental research, DFT provides valuable insights and accelerates scientific progress.

"Molecular Modeling and Its Significance in Understanding Chemical Properties: A Comprehensive Overview"

 

"Molecular Modeling and Its Significance in Understanding Chemical Properties: A Comprehensive Overview"

Introduction

In the field of computational chemistry, molecular modeling is a powerful tool that allows scientists to investigate and understand the behavior of molecules and their interactions at a microscopic level. By employing advanced computational techniques and algorithms, molecular modeling enables the simulation of molecular structures, dynamics, and properties, thereby providing a deeper understanding of chemical phenomena. This article aims to provide a brief overview of molecular modeling and highlight its significance in enhancing our understanding of chemical properties.

Keywords: molecular modeling, computational chemistry, understanding chemical properties, simulation, molecular structures, dynamics, advanced computational techniques, algorithms.

Understanding Molecular Modeling:

Molecular modeling encompasses a wide range of computational methods employed to predict and analyze molecular behavior. By constructing mathematical models and simulations that accurately represent the atomic and molecular structures of compounds, researchers can investigate various molecular properties, including energy, geometry, reactivity, and spectroscopic characteristics.

Importance in Drug Discovery:

The significance of molecular modeling is particularly pronounced in the realm of drug discovery. Through virtual screening of extensive chemical databases, researchers can identify potential drug candidates with specific properties. Virtual screening, a process made possible by molecular modeling, saves significant time and resources compared to traditional experimental methods. Techniques like molecular docking allow the prediction of binding affinity between drug molecules and target proteins, facilitating the design of more effective and selective drugs.

Understanding Protein Structures:

Proteins, essential macromolecules responsible for numerous biological functions, can be better understood by determining their three-dimensional structures. Molecular modeling techniques such as homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulations provide valuable insights into protein folding, stability, and interactions. These computational tools enable researchers to explore protein-ligand, protein-protein, and protein-DNA interactions, leading to a comprehensive understanding of complex biological processes.

Predicting Chemical Reactivity:

Molecular modeling empowers researchers to predict and analyze the reactivity of molecules, providing invaluable information regarding chemical reactions. Quantum chemical calculations and density functional theory (DFT) are widely used computational techniques for determining reaction energetics, pathways, and transition states. By elucidating reaction mechanisms, molecular modeling guides experimental chemists in designing new reactions or optimizing existing ones.

Designing New Materials

Molecular modeling has revolutionized the design of new materials with tailored properties. By simulating the behavior of atoms and molecules in various environments, scientists can predict the physical and chemical properties of materials, such as strength, conductivity, and optical characteristics. This knowledge enables the development of novel materials for applications in electronics, energy storage, catalysis, and many other fields.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, molecular modeling is an indispensable tool in computational chemistry that allows researchers to gain a profound understanding of chemical properties. Through the simulation of molecular structures, dynamics, and interactions, molecular modeling aids in drug discovery, protein structure analysis, prediction of chemical reactivity, and the design of advanced materials. By leveraging computational techniques, scientists can expedite research, optimize experiments, and facilitate the development of new compounds and materials, leading to advancements in various scientific fields. As computational power and algorithms continue to advance, molecular modeling will undoubtedly play a pivotal role in unraveling the mysteries of chemistry and shaping the future of scientific discoveries.

"Demystifying Computational Chemistry: A Journey into Molecular Modeling, Quantum Mechanics, and Molecular Dynamics Simulations with Gaussian"

 

"Demystifying Computational Chemistry: A Journey into Molecular Modeling, Quantum Mechanics, and Molecular Dynamics Simulations with Gaussian"

Introduction:

In the world of chemistry, computational chemistry has emerged as a powerful tool for investigating the behavior of molecules and materials. By utilizing advanced algorithms and mathematical models, computational chemistry enables scientists to unravel the intricate details of chemical systems that are often difficult or impossible to observe experimentally. In this article, we will delve into the foundational principles and techniques used in computational chemistry, including molecular modeling, quantum mechanics, and molecular dynamics simulations.

What is Computational Chemistry? 

Computational chemistry, also known as theoretical chemistry, combines principles from chemistry, physics, and computer science to study the structure, properties, and behavior of molecules and materials. It involves employing computational algorithms and mathematical models to simulate and analyze chemical phenomena, enabling researchers to gain valuable insights into complex chemical systems.

Molecular Modeling:

One of the key aspects of computational chemistry is molecular modeling, which encompasses a range of techniques for representing and visualizing molecular structures. By employing various computational methods, such as force fields and quantum mechanical calculations, molecular modeling allows scientists to predict and analyze properties such as molecular geometry, electronic structure, and energetics.

Quantum Mechanics in Computational Chemistry:

Quantum mechanics forms the theoretical foundation of computational chemistry, providing a rigorous framework for understanding the behavior of atoms and molecules at the atomic and subatomic levels. Computational methods based on quantum mechanics, such as density functional theory (DFT) and Hartree-Fock theory, enable accurate predictions of molecular properties and interactions. These methods involve solving complex mathematical equations that describe the quantum behavior of electrons and nuclei, providing valuable insights into molecular behavior and spectroscopic properties.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations:

Molecular dynamics simulations play a crucial role in computational chemistry, enabling researchers to investigate the motion and behavior of molecules over time. These simulations involve numerically solving the equations of motion for a system of interacting atoms, allowing scientists to simulate the dynamics of molecules under different conditions. Molecular dynamics simulations provide insights into the behavior of molecules in various environments, such as in solution or at different temperatures, and aid in understanding processes like protein folding, chemical reactions, and material properties.

The Role of Gaussian Software:

In computational chemistry, software packages such as Gaussian are widely used for performing complex calculations and simulations. Gaussian is a powerful computational chemistry program that utilizes various methods and algorithms to solve quantum mechanical equations, enabling researchers to predict molecular properties, perform molecular dynamics simulations, and explore reaction mechanisms. Gaussian provides a user-friendly interface and a wide range of computational methods suitable for diverse research applications.

Conclusion:

Computational chemistry has revolutionized the way chemists explore and understand chemical systems. By employing molecular modeling, quantum mechanics, and molecular dynamics simulations, computational chemists gain valuable insights into the fundamental principles governing chemical behavior. Techniques such as density functional theory and software packages like Gaussian have become essential tools in computational chemistry, enabling researchers to predict and analyze molecular properties accurately. As computational methods continue to advance, the field of computational chemistry will undoubtedly play a pivotal role in the discovery and design of new materials, drugs, and chemical processes.